The World of Khmer Mythology

Drawing from his fifteen years of study on Khmer visual narratives from the 8th to 13th centuries and on contemporary Buddhist painting in Cambodia, the author examines Khmer local beliefs, the cult of ancestors, and the interplay of religions that shaped Cambodian society. Most importantly, he focuses on Khmer myths and legends as represented in temple carvings and sculptural narratives, showing how these stories embody both religious symbolism and cultural identity. The book highlights the continuity between animist practices, ancestor veneration, and the mythological heritage that defines Khmer art and spirituality.

[ADB Input: The idea of this synthesis came from sustained discussions between the author and Chau Sun Kerya, APSARA National Representative to ICC-Angkor since 2005.] 

Highlights:

Local Beliefs, Animism

For the majority of the Khmer population, the old cults of animism and ancestor worship were the religion of everyday life. Their rituals may have been more discreet than those of the official religion, being restricted to the individual or the community. There is no evidence for this assumption, but comparisons with modern Southeast Asia and particularly Cambodia support this view. 

Today’s powerful spirits of nature, the neak ta, are well integrated with the official religion. It is also modern practice to combine a form of Theravada Buddhism with the belief in divinities, placing the devata (divinity) higher than the neak ta (spirit). The neak ta can be defined as the ancestral spirits of the neighbourhood, or the village, associated with hills, mounds, trees, etc., where they reside. They are very powerful, and each village community had its neak ta or a number of them, constrained by ritual to the protection of the place. They thus become patron spirits of the community, similar to the nats of Burma. Little is known of these local divinities, perhaps because all inscriptions dealing with religious matters were addressed to Hindu Gods and were in Sanskrit, the gods’ own language, and unknown to the population at large. [p.12]

Religions

Having adopted the basic principles of Indian religious beliefs, particularly the cult of Shiva, the Khmers did not significantly change them, perhaps because they were never totally assimilated. Similarly, Buddhism, accepted probably both in the Mahayana and Theravada form since the early Angkorian period, continued to co-exist. The author, however, makes no reference to the development of Brahmanism or Vaishnavism in this book.

Hinduism : The divinities of the Hindu Trinity, Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu, inspired religious cults that became important forms of worship at Angkor. Shivaism was the earliest and most important. However it was temporarily supplanted by Vishnuism [ADB input: Vaisnavism or Vaishnavism, sk वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः] in the eleventh century.

Shivaism [Saivism]: was certainly practised in Cambodia from the 5th century and remained very popular because it absorbed local beliefs so becoming a religion for the people (Bhattacharya, 1961: 43). Shiva was worshipped under the name of Bhadreshvara and the king paid tribute with special ceremonies. Zhou Daguan tells of night time ceremonies involving human sacrifices although admittedly he heard this from other Chinese residents at Angkor. The epigraphy indicates the presence of 2 sects, that of Pasupata (from the 7th century) and that of Shaiva (from the 9th century). The followers of Shiva did not promote caste subdivisions but requested devotion (bhakti) towards their god, and it seems that the generic term ​‘brahman’ was applicable to all followers. Shivaism emphasised Yoga practices; it is curious that the Chinese visitors to Cambodia (Zhou Daguan) confused the attitudes and thinking of the ascetics of Shiva with those of Taoist masters! In Pre-Angkorian times, Shiva was represented mainly in the form of a linga. Anthropomorphic representations were rare in Pre-Angkorian sculpture but become frequent during the Angkorian period in which Shiva plays an important part in its iconography. One of the favourite forms of Shiva is Mahesvara with his consort Uma (Parvati, Devi, or in her fierce form of Durga) sitting on his left leg, sometimes both mounted on the bull Nandi (or Nandin). Frequently Shiva holds his attribute of the trident or the rosary of the ascetics in conformity with Indian traditions. He is ​‘in meditation’ in a relief of Preah Pithu, or dancing (Banteay Srei, Natakeshvara). The cult of Ardhanarishvara, or androgynous Shiva was rare. The Khmers regarded Shiva as a benevolent deity, another creator rather than the fierce and cruel destroyer of Indian mythology. The consort of Shiva was highly venerated by the Khmers. Often represented as Mahisasura-mardini, with four arms and a typical hairdo (kirita-mukuta), she appears in reliefs at Banteay Samré, fighting a demon buffalo standing on a lion, while at Banteay Srei she has eight arms.

The Myth: The Churning of The Ocean of Milk

The relief depicting the Churning of the Ocean of Milk in the eastern gallery, south wing of Angkor Wat (photos by Jaroslav Poncar).

The relief depicting the Churning of the Ocean of Milk in the eastern gallery, south wing of Angkor Wat (photos by Jaroslav Poncar).

The main scene of this renowned myth is magnificently carved at Angkor Wat eastern gallery. It is narrated in the Mahabharata and, and in the Bhagavad Purana in its most complete form​.It has been described and interpreted by many scholars over a long period of research from Coedès (1911) to Maxwell (2006); we have presented it, in some detail, in Sacred Angkor (2002: 52).

It all started at the beginning of the world, when the gods and demons, respectively called devas and asuras, fought bitterly between themselves for a thousand years in an effort to produce the amrita, an elixir that would render them immortal and incorruptible. After some time, when they were tired and unable to achieve their goal, they asked the help of Vishnu. He appeared and ordered them to work together, not against each other. They agreed and organised themselves in two groups pulling the snake Ananta, each group helped by three generals. The asuras, to the left, are commanded by a general with multiple heads, and the devas, to the right, have mighty monkey king Valin holding the tail of the naga snake.

Together, the two teams pull the opposite ends of the divine serpent Vasuki, with alternate phases of relaxation, like in a tug-of-war, accomplishing thus churning the Ocean of Milk. However, suddenly the pivot, Mount Mandara, started to sink. Vishnu intervened in his incarnation of the tortoise Kurma, offering the back of his shell as a support for the mountain. Indra also intervened by keeping the pivot The spinning of in position by balancing on his top. Mount Mandara created such a violent whirlpool that the mythological creatures and fish around it were torn to pieces in great numbers.

The Ocean of Milk was churned for another 1000 years before producing the much-desired amrita and other treasures amongst which were the goddess Laksmi (Sri Devi), the elephant Airavana, the horse Uccaishrava, a wishing tree, the apsaras and the jar containing the elixir.

As the jar with the amrita appeared, the asuras snatched it away (Bhagavata Purana, VIII, 35 – 46-IX, 1 – 27). The gods, totally dejected, sought refuge with Vishnu who consoled them by promising to create discord amongst the asuras and then – through his yogic power — transform into a beautiful girl, Mohini, to recover the amrita. Her incomparable beauty created a stir amongst the dissenting asuras, and her amorous glances provoked passion in the hearts of their leaders. In the general confusion, by magic and convincing words, she made the asuras give her the jar of nectar which she sent at once yet again by magic to the gods to drink to prevent old age and death. However, the evil Rahu had sneaked in amongst the gods and started to drink the amrita before he was caught and punished (see page 160). When the gods had recovered the nectar, Vishnu abandoned Mohini’s appearance and returned to his own form. After all these tumultuous events, the asuras realised they had not had any amrita and had been deceived. A bitter confrontation took place leading to a great battle with the devas (see below).

Together with the Sun, the Moon spotted Rahu stealing some of the amrita produced by the Churning and informed Vishnu, who punished him severely. Legend wants that Garuda managed to steal a few drops of amrita (see below under Garuda), and that the naga Vasuki, with five heads full of fangs, vomited floods of black venom due to his mishandling by the devas and asuras during the churning. This was enough to poison everybody had it not been for Shiva, who drank it all, his mouth remaining stained with a black line forever as a result. Once peace was established, Indra was reinstalled as the king of the gods.

The key for understanding this myth rests on the notion that in ancient India, the gods were made upon a human model and thus were mortal; similarly the demons. The production of immortality was thus imperative, and the best way to obtain it was through churning the primordial Ocean by alternatively pull a rope around a vertical pole, the centre of the Universe. Every microcosm, every inhabited region has a ​‘centre’ that is to say a site sacred above all. In Hindu and Buddhist iconography the centre is a mythic mountain at the centre of earth. Along the axis of the centre is the connection between two regions of Heaven and Earth. The Cosmic Mountain, symbolized by a tree or a column, is the Mount Meru (or Sumeru) of Indian tradition. Surprising in the relief of Angkor Wat, the central figure of Vishnu was left unfinished.

Mount Mandara was roughly hatched as a column with a rounded top as the axis of the World, surmounted by a minuscule figure of a flying deity, Indra¹ (according to the Mahabharata) stabilizing the pivot Mount Mandara). Furthermore, something must have gone wrong when the sculptors carved the figure of Vishnu. What we can see now is the rear of Vishnu’s body, the back of the body because there are no nipples or navel to indicate his chest, and the sarong around the hips and buttocks, the legs (one leg is missing), the arms with hands holding his attributes seen from the back; of the necklace the back is shown, not the front with the usual jewel Kaustubha.

There are also re-thinking in the carving of the naga’s body around the pole (Mount Mandara)… and in the definition of the pole itself. At the base of the pole standing on the shell of the sacred turtle (Kurma); the sculptors have left uncarved area where the products of the Churning should have been represented.

To the upper right of Vishnu, over his left hand holding the sacred discus (chakra) one can imagine the vague shapes of a small horse and the baby elephant. We believe that the image of Vishnu was carved entirely seen from the back with the face turned backwards. Noticing the anomaly, probably the sculptors or sponsors became unsatisfied and decided to abandon the relief’s carving. At Angkor Wat the identification of the figure that is pulling energetically the naga to the right of Vishnu, is controversial. Some scholars said it was Shiva, but Mannikka identified it is Rahu, for his typical headdress, fangs, and trimmed beard (Mannikka 1966: 164).

The myth of the Churning symbolizes the eternal struggle between gods and demons. As Vishnu, king Suryavarman was able to stop the sea of rebellion, anarchy, of chaos to ensure the order indispensable to subdue his rebellious ​‘princedoms’ and enforce the policy of constantly bring order to the state. The Myth of the Churning of the Ocean is not a creation myth insofar it does not concern the origin of the universe, but the mythic search for immortality.

The presence of the monkey king Valin in the Churning although extraneous to Puranic texts, is well known in Southern India Tamil Ramayana (of Kambnan) where the monkey is identified as Valin King of Kiskinda. His depiction is not exclusive of Angkor Wat: it occurs also in the Churning of Bayon and Banteay Chmar; his presence in the traditional representations of other Churning in Cambodia, would seem to require his opponent counterpart to be Ravana, as pure speculation.

At Bayon, the churning scene carved in the western gallery, northern wing, is rather badly preserved but with great attention one can see a giant asura pulling the head of the naga serpent for the churning; the asura’s top of the head has 5 visible faces; his soldiers are all wearing a ​“Cham style” headgear more ornate than usual. At the center of the scene, Vishnu cling on mount Mandara, carved as a column with a capital on which the four armed Brahma descends. Vishnu hold attributes in his four arms, the discus, a sphere, a sword or stick and the conch; below him, the double-folded snake’s body (Vasuki) is clearly visible next to the jar containing the amrita. The base of the Mandara pivot/​column is eroded, but it is evident it rested the large turtle (Kurma) immersed in waters full of dismembered fish (exactly as at Angkor Wat).

To the left side of Vishnu is the discus of the Sun (on a chariot pulled by one horse), and to the right, the moon (a single deity within the circle); apsaras fly everywhere. Below and to the left (north) of Vishnu are devas pulling the snake, the tail of which is held by a large monkey, Valin as at Angkor Wat and Banteay Chmar. In some of the lowest part of the relief, it is possible to see a portion of the scaly body of the second snake (?). Nothing could me more useful than the JSA detailed drawings published in 2004.

It is not clear if the scene continues into the adjacent panel (left of viewer) depicting a large contingent of Cham soldiers with a leader on a chariot pulled by a lion, which seems to receive the blessing of a deity holding a rosary (Shiva?). The connection is unclear because to the right of the churning scene there are no soldiers (as at Angkor Wat) but rows of rishis. Then further to the right, the reliefs are much deteriorated, but one can see the head of a female standing figure (Mohini?) overlooking rows of Chams (asuras). This may refer to Vishnu taking the form of the beautiful girl Mohini to deceive the asuras in order to recover the amrita that they had stolen.

In conclusion the Bayon’s relief of the Churning has been copied in detail from that of Angkor Wat, and could be even more complete if the episode of Mohini is confirmed. The only difference is that the devas are to the north at Angkor Wat, and to the south at Bayon and Banteay Chmar. The main participants are all there as in the classic myth: Vishnu, Brahma, Kurma, probably Shiva, Valin and the two snakes, completely denying the arguments of Peter Sharrok (Bayon: 252) who sees a new Buddhist version of the myth of the Churning.

The Myth of The Making of Angkor Wat

The creation of Angkor Wat was described in the LAV, short for Lpoek Angkor Vat, a poem composed by Pang in the 17th century. In 1990, Khing (:123 – 128) expanded his earlier study by adding a full translation of Aymonier 1878, and Moura 1883. 

The first part of the poem describes the origin of the great palace of Angkor Wat, built by the god Indra to accommodate Ket-Mealea (or Ketumala), a youth of incomparable beauty that Indra believed to be his son. After having abducted him to his heavenly palace, Indra was forced to send him back to earth because of the youth’s ​‘human emanation’ (smell) that was upsetting the celestial inhabitants.

Ket Mealea had become used to living in Indra’s celestial palace. This marvelous palace was surmounted by towers with precious stones, as bright as sun’s rays. Everywhere were fine sculptures, sparkling crystals, and gold decorations. The furnishing was reach and refined, the windows ornate with scarlet curtains with gold pendants. A harmonious music pervaded the godly residence, composed and executed by angels; there was some chanting and dancing. In brief it was the residence of joy and happiness. 

In order to comfort Ket Mealea for being expelled, Indra decided building a palace similar but smaller than his own; he gave orders to the divine architect, Visvakarma to build it. The architect of the gods received also the order to assume human form for the occasion, and descend on the shores of the Tonle Sap to erect a palace surrounded by a park. The marvelous palace was Angkor Wat.

Vishvakama assembled as many workers he could to start the works; to help, angels descended by millions. Firstly he erected a statue in the shape of a bull (Shiva’s symbol) that could preserve the country, the people and the king from the bad influence of genies. Finally, he started the building commissioned by making the justice hall, the mebon (basin) and then lions sculpted along the entrances to the building. The text says that, both outside and inside, the walls were painted with a great variety of subjects.

Following this, the poem describes what we assume to be the large reliefs of the ​‘heavens and hells’ with princesses, refined and elegant in the heavens, some with loose hair, while others carrying flowers; below, the scene changes into groups of sad frightening figures in various parts of the hells.

A rare photograph of Neak Pean temple with the basin depleted at the peak of dry season.