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Notes on Brahmanic Gods in Theravadin Cambodia

by Saveros Pou

A lively and perceptive exploration of Cambodian syncretisme from ancient times

Publication: Indologica Taurinensia, XIV, pp 339-351

Published: 1987

Author: Saveros Pou

Pages: 12

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With her vast knowledge of Khmer linguistics and epigraphy, the author effortlessly leads us along the often unexpected and always inventive way of how the Cambodian people adapted external influences to their own beliefs and worldview. The most fascinating aspect of the Cambodian syncretism is perhaps the fact that many deities remained in the spiritual realm as ​“venerated but not worshipped” forces.

From these notes, we will underline:

  • Adaptative Freedom: ​“Two of the chief Brahmanic gods were neatly taken over by Theravada faith, i.e. Indra and Brahma. Nearly nothing was left from their past lofty and impressive features. But these were substituted for by highest ranks in the Buddhist cosmology. Indeed, they were assimilated with their Buddhist namesakes, with the result that their names were carried over, untouched, into the new system, and prefixed by the sacred headword brah.”
  • Secularization : ​“God Yama had kept a vague and dim figure of judge in hell. But Theravadin eschatology was now more concerned with the working of karmic retribution, than with the threat of effective punishments of evil-doers in hell. In other words, the pragmatic Khmer Buddhists rather dreaded the action of yamapâlas, the ​‘hell-wardens’, while holding unanimously the Buddha as the main judge of their deeds. The name Yamarâj, now redundant, was secularized, and applied to the ​“Minister of justice”, nowadays written either yama- or yomarâj. As for Skanda, the young god also named Kumâr, he was too involved in healing sick children to disappear completely. His name was wholly secularized, hence the modern word skand, ​“convulsions” as disorder of infants, then any such disorder in all creatures. The most fantastic story concerns Kâma, Skt. lexical item and name of the god of love. It was a well-known noun in ancient Cambodia, as one of the elements of the trivarga, thus meaning ​“desire, longing after, pleasure, love …”. Predictably, austere Theravada could not accomodate such a concept, especially in the sense of ​“sensual love, sexual enjoyment”. It banished it from trivarga, and cast out god Kama altogether. But the other side of Theravada, made of kind- and open-mindedness, tolerated effusive expression in poetic and lyric creations. Especially in lyric poetry, lovers went on singing their griefs and joys and the part played therein by a « god » of love whom they addressed as Kamadeb, and who is still very popular nowadays.”
  • “Recycling” the gods: ​“I have focused my attention on the particular subject of Brahmanic gods, and the ways they were allowed to survive and to have an active part in the Cambodian Theravadin community. A few were adopted by the Buddhists because they suited weil their new world-representation. Several others owed their survival to a transfer into magic, therefore joined happily the most popular and active sphere of supernatural world, whilst a few were rescued from the sinking Brahmanism by linguistic and institutional usages. And this is one of the best illustrations of the present-day multifaceted Khmer culture.”

god-kama-banteay-srei.jpg#asset:5225

Photo: Kama, the god of love, with Uma on a Banteay Srei bas-relief (by susan)

Tags: religion, Brahmanism, Theravada Buddhism, magic, cosmology, Sanskrit, Old Khmer, Middle Khmer, Modern Khmer, syncretism

About the Author

Saveros Pou

Saveros Pou (Saveros Lewitz in the 1960s-1970s) ពៅ សាវរស (1929, Phnom Penh- 25 May 2020, France) was a French linguist of Cambodian origin. A retired research director of the CNRS in Paris, a specialist of the Khmer language and civilization, she carried out extensive work of Khmer epigraphy, starting as a young researcher with teachers George Cœdès, Jean Filliozat, Louis Renou, Armand Minard, Anne-Marie Esnoul, André Bareau and the Cambodian intellectual living in Paris Au Chhieng.

Born in a high-society and learned family — her uncle, Nhieuk Nou (1900−1982), was ​‘okhnya mahamantri’, Royal Palace secretary, and her grandfather, Ker Nou (1864−1958), a judge and ​‘pandit’ (sage) -, Saveros Pou went to the Sutharot Girls School and Lycée Sisowath before moving to France for higher education, to become a leading researcher in linguistics and social history of Cambodia, as well as a respected teacher for several generations. Residing in England in the 1970s and 1980s, she furthered her research in several US universities, in particular in Hawaii.

Her work in the field of etymology, specifically applied to old Khmer (from 6th to 14th centuries) was seminal, while her varied skills enabled her to tackle areas such as the very rich processes of derivation in Khmer, religion, codes of conduct, zoology and botany, culinary art, etc. This encyclopedic approach is reflected in her Dictionnaire vieux khmer-français-anglais.

‘Madame Pou’ is the author of more than 150 books and articles, published in several orientalist journals such as the Journal Asiatique and the Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient. Saveros Pou’s last book published before her death was Un dictionnaire du khmer-moyen (Phnom Penh, Buddhist Institute, Sāstrā Publishing House, 2017).

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Mme Saveros Pou in 1970 (photo Reyum/​Mikaelian)
Pou saveros 1996 ham chhayly
Prof. Pou Saveros in 1996 (photo by ហម ឆាយលី Ham Chhayly).

Publications

[sources: a) ADB Library Research; b) Grégory Mikaelian​’s bibliography of Pou Saveros in Choix d’articles de Khmérologie. Selected Papers on Khmerology; c) Alida Ham’s bibliography in ជីវប្រវត្តិរបស់លោកស្រីបណ្ឌិត សាស្ត្រាចារ្យ ពៅ សាវរស (កម្រងសិក្សាខ្មែរចងក្រងដើម្បីរំឭកឧបការគុណ និងឧទ្ទិសជូនដល់លោកស្រីបណ្ឌិត‑សាស្រ្តចារ្យ) [A Biography of Dr. Pou Savros ( Khmer study series compiled in commemoration and dedication to Dr. Pou Savros)], compiled by ហម ឆាយលី Ham Chhayly, Phnom Penh, BE 2559 (2016), 49 p.]

  1. “La toponymie khmère”, BEFEO LIII, 2, 1967: 377 – 450.
  2. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (I): Mots khmers considérés à tort comme d’origine savante”, Journal Asiatique (JA), 1967, 1: 117 – 31. [RVC1]
  3. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (II): Mots sanskrits considérés comme khmers”, JA, 1967 2: 243 – 60. [RVC2]
  4. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (III): Mots khmers considérés à tort comme d’origine siamoise”, JA, 1967 3 – 4: 285 – 304. [RVC3]
  5. “La dérivation en cambodgien moderne”, Revue de l’Ecole Nationale des Langues Orientales Vivantes (RENLOV), IV, 1967: 65 – 84.
  6. “L’accentuation syllabique en cambodgien”, Papers of the CIC Far Eastern Institute, Michigan 1968: 155 – 67.
  7. Lectures cambodgiennes (Reader), Paris, Maisonneuve, 1968, 110 p.
  8. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (IV): Du mot ​‘mourir’ dans le rājasabd”, JA, 1968: 211 – 7. [RVC4]
  9. “Note sur la dérivation par affixation en khmer moderne (cambodgien)”, RENLOV V, 1968: 117 – 27.
  10. “Quelques cas complexes de dérivation en cambodgien”, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (JRAS), 1969: 39 – 48.
  11. “Note sur la translittération du cambodgien”, BEFEO LV, 1969: 163 – 9.
  12. “Notes ethnobotaniques sur quelques plantes en usage au Cambodge” [with J.E. Vidal, G. Martel], BEFEO LV, 1969: 171 – 232.
  13. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (V) Les mots lanleń /​lanlyin dans les inscriptions khmères”, JA, 1969: 157 – 65. [RVC5]
  14. [review] ​“Introduction to Cambodian par J.M. Jacob, London, OUP, 1968, in‑8°, 341 р.”, BSOAS XXXII, 3, 1969: 652 – 4.
  15. “Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor 2 et 3”, BEFEO LVII, 1970: 99 – 126. [IMANGK1]
  16. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (VI): Les noms des points cardinaux en khmer”, JA, 1970: 131 – 41. [RVC6]
  17. [review] ​“The Khmer Language par Y.A. Gorgoniev, Moscou, Nauka, 1966, in-16, 134 р.”, Bulletin of the Society of Linguistics and Philology (BSLP), LXIV, 1970, 2: 232 – 5.
  18. [review] ​“Early Indo-Cambodian Contacts. Literary and Linguistic par K.K. Sarkar, Santiniketan, Viśvabharati, 1968, in‑8°, 76 p.”, BSLP LXV, 1970, 2: 34 – 6.
  19. “L’inscription de Phimeanakas (K.484). Étude linguistique”, BEFEO LVIII, 1971 : 91 – 103.
  20. “Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor 4, 5, 6 et 7”, BEFEO, LVIII, 1971: 105 – 23. [IMANGK2]
  21. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (VII): Les doublets d’origine indienne”, JA, 1971:103 – 38. [RVC7]
  22. [review] ​“Cambodian System of Writing and Beginning Reader par F.E. Huffman, Yale Linguistic Series, Yale, 1970, in‑8°, 365 p.”, BSOAS XXXIV, 1973, 3: 649 – 50.
  23. “Deux cas de doublets en khmer”, in Langues et Techniques. Nature et Société, Hommage Haudricourt, Paris, Klincksieck, 1971, I: 149 – 56.
  24. “Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor 1, 8 et 9”, BEFEO LIX, 1972: 101 – 21. [IMANGK3]
  25. “Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16a, 16b et 16c”, BEFEO LIX, 1972: 221 – 49. [IMANGK4]
  26. “Les inscriptions modernes d’Angkor Vat”, JA, 1972: 107 – 29.
  27. “Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 et 25”, BEFEO LX, 1973: 163 – 203. [IMANGK5]
  28. “Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 et 33”, BEFEO LX, 1973: 205 – 43. [IMANGK6]
  29. “Lexique des noms d’arbres et d’arbustes du Cambodge” [with B. Rollet], BEFEO LX, 1973: 117 – 62.
  30. “Some Chinese Loanwords in Khmer” [with P.N.Jenner], Journal of Oriental Studies (JOS), Hong Kong, XI, 1, 1973 : 1 – 90.
  31. “Kpuon Ābāh-bibah ou ​“Le Livre du mariage des Khmers””, BEFEO LX, 1973, p 243 – 328.
  32. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (VIII): Du vieux khmer au khmer moderne”, JA, 1974: 143 – 70. [RVC8]
  33. “ ​‘Nuage’, ​‘ciel’, ​‘pluie’ et ​‘grêle’ en khmer”, ASEMI V, 1, 1974: 107 – 11.
  34. “Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor 35, 37, et 39”, BEFEO LXI, 1974: 301 – 37. [IMANGK7]
  35. “The Word āc in Khmer. A Semantic Overview”, South-East Asian Linguistic Studies (SEALS), Canberra, 1974: 175 – 91.
  36. “Note sur la date du Poème d’Angkor Vat”, JA, 1975: 119 – 24.
  37. “Proto-Indonesian and Mon-Khmer”, [with P.N. Jenner), Asian Perspectives, XVII, 2, 1975:112 – 24.
  38. “Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor 34 et 38”, BEFEO LXII, 1975:283 – 353. [IMANGK8]
  39. “Les traits bouddhiques du Rāmakerti”, BEFEO LXII, 1975: 355 – 68.
  40. “Les Cpap’ ou ​‘Codes de conduite’ khmers I. Cpāp’ Kerti kāl” [with P.N. Jenner], BEFEO LXII, 1975: 369 – 94. [CPAP1]
  41. “Notes de morphologie khmère”, ASEMI VI, 4, 1975: 63 – 9.
  42. “The Infix /-b/ in Khmer”, Austroasiatic Studies (AS), Honolulu, 1976, II: 741 – 60.
  43. “Note on Words for Male and Female in Old Khmer and Modern Khmer”, AS, 1976, II: 761 – 71.
  44. “Les Cpap’ ou ​‘Codes de conduite’ khmers II. Cpap’ Prus” [with P.N. Jenner], BEFEO LXIII, 1976: 313 – 50. [CPAP2]
  45. «Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien IX”, JA, 1976:333 – 55. [RVC9]
  46. “Deux extraits du Rāmakerti”, Mon-Khmer Studies (MKS), VI, 1976: 217 – 45.
  47. [review] ​“Rioen Rāmakerti nai Tā Cak’. Histoire du Reamker, présenté par F. Bizot, Phnom Penh, EFEO, 1973”, Artibus Asiae (AAs), 1976, 38⁄4: 320 – 21.
  48. “Inscriptions en khmer moyen de Vat Athvéa (K. 261)”, BEFEO LXIV, 1977:151 – 66.
  49. “Les Cpap’ ou ​‘Codes de conduite’ khmers III. Cpap’ Kūn cau” [with P.N. Jenner], BEFEO LXIV, 1977: 167 – 215. [CPAP3]
  50. [tr. and commentary] Rāmakerti (XVIè-XVIIè siècles), Paris, PEFEO vol. CX, 1977, 299 р.
  51. Etudes sur le Ramakerti (XVIè-XVIIè siècles), Paris, PEFEO vol. CXI, 1977, 201 р.
  52. “Inscription dite de Brai Svay ou ​‘Bois des Manguiers’ de Sukhoday”, BEFEO LXV, 1978, 333 – 59.
  53. “Les Cpāp’ IV. Cpāp’ Rājaneti ou Cpap’ Brah Rājasambhār” [with P.N. Jenner), BEFEO LXV, 1978: 361 – 402. [CPAP4]
  54. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien X. L’étymologie populaire”, JA, 1978: 153 – 77. [RVC10]
  55. Rāmakerti (XVIè-XVIIè siècles) (Textes khmer), Paris, PEFEO vol. CXVII, 1979, 339p.
  56. “Les Cpap’ V. Cpap’ Kram” [with P.N. Jenner], BEFEO LXVI, 1979: 129 – 60. [CPAP5]
  57. “Les pronoms personnels du khmer: origine et évolution”, SEALS 4, Canberra, 1979: 155 – 78.
  58. “Une description de la phrase en vieux-khmer”, MKS VIII, 1979: 139 – 69.
  59. “Subhāsit and Cpap’ in Khmer Literature”, in Ludwik Sternbach Felicitation Volume, J.P. Sinha ed., Akila Bharatyia Sanskrit Parishad, Lucknow, 1979, I: 331 – 48.
  60. “Some proper names in the Khmer Rāmakerti”, South East Asian Review (SEAR), 1980. V, 2: 19 – 29.
  61. “Inscriptions khmères K.144 et K.177”, BEFEO LXX, 1981: 101 – 20.
  62. “Inscriptions khmères K.39 et K.27”, BEFEO LXX, 1981: 121 – 33.
  63. “Les Cpāp’ ou ​‘Codes de conduite’ khmers VI. Cpap’ Trineti” [with P.N. Jenner], BEFEO LXX, 1981: 135 – 93. [CPAP6]
  64. “La littérature didactique khmère : les Cpap”, JA, 1981: 454 – 66.
  65. “Liste d’ouvrages de Cpap’ ” [with K. Haksrea], JA, 1981 : 467 – 83.
  66. [review] ​“Seksa Khmer, Nº 1 – 2, Déc. 1980, Cedoreck, Paris, in‑8°, 241 р.”, JA, 1981: 516 – 8.
  67. “Etudes rāmakertiennes”, Seksa Khmer (SK), 3 – 4, 1981:89 – 110.
  68. “Inventaire des œuvres sur le Rāmāyaņa khmer (Rāmakerti)”, (en coll. avec Lan Sunnary, K. Haksrea), Seksa Khmer, 3 – 4, 1981: 111 – 26.
  69. A Lexicon of Khmer Morphology [with P.N. Jenner], Mon-Khmer Studies IX‑X, Honolulu, 1980 – 81, in‑8°, 524 p.
  70. “Les noms de plantes dans l’épigraphie vieux-khmère” [with M.A. Martin], ASEMI XII, 1 – 2, 1981: 3 – 73.
  71. “Notes historico-sémantiques khmères “, ASEMI XII, 1 – 2, 1981: 111 – 24.
  72. Rāmakerti II (Deuxième version du Rāmāyana khmer), Paris, PEFEO vol. CXXXII, 1982, 305 p.
  73. “Jean Filliozat: le guru que j’ai connu, SK 5, 1982: 5 – 9.
  74. “Du sanskrit kīrti au khmer kerti : Une tradition littéraire du Cambodge”, SK 5, 1982: 33 – 54.
  75. “A propos du nom d’une plante jir”, SK 5, 1982:55 – 60.
  76. “Dharma and trivarga in the Khmer Language”,Dr. Babu Ram Saksena Felicitation Volume, XI-XV, J.P. Sinha ed., Lucknow, 1983: 289 – 97.
  77. “Rāmakertian Studies”, Asian Variations in Ramayana, Srinivasa Iyengar ed., Delhi, Sahitya Akademi, 1983: 252 – 62.
  78. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien XI. Des verbes ​‘parler’ en khmer, JA, 1983, 3 – 4: 345 – 62. [RVC11]
  79. “A propos de ramās bhloen ou ​‘rhinocéros du Feu’ », SK 6, 1983: 3 – 9.
  80. Nouvelles préfaces (2 x 10p. KH+FR) aux Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor, Paris, Réimpression Cedoreck, 1984. [IMANGK9]
  81. “Sarasvati dans la culture khmère”, Bulletin d’Etudes Indiennes (BEI), 2, 1984: 207 – 12.
  82. “Lexicographie vieux-khmère, SK 7, 1984, 67 – 175, Pl.
  83. [review] ​“Khmer Ceramics, Singapore, 1981”, SK 7, 1984: 255 – 7.
  84. [review] ​“Mahāvessantarajātak (Nuk Thaem, éd.), Paris, Réimpression Cedoreck & ABK, 1982, in‑8°, 480 p.”, SK 7, 1984: 257 – 62.
  85. [review] ​“Khmer = Kham par Chatra Prem Reudi, République Khmère, Phnompenh, 1974”, SK 7, 1984:262 – 5.
  86. Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens par Etienne Aymonier (Commentaire et présentation), Paris, Cedoreck, 1984, 116 p.
  87. “Old Khmer Lexicology”, Indus Valley to Mekong Delta. Explorations in Epigraphy, Madras, New Era Publications, 1985: 287 – 99.
  88. “Rāmakerti — The Khmer (or Cambodian) Rāmāyaņa”, Sanskrit and World Culture, SCHR. OR., 18, Berlin, 1986: 203 – 11.
  89. “Indic Loanwords in Khmer other than Sanskrit”, Kambodschanische Kultur (KK) 1, Berlin, 1986: 48 – 55.
  90. “Vocabulaire khmer relatif aux éléphants”, JA, CCLXXIV, 3 – 4, 1986: 311 – 402.
  91. “Sarasvati dans la culture khmère”, BEI 4, 1986: 321 – 39.
  92. [review] ​“International Seminar on Rāmāyaņa. Traditions and National Cultures in Asia 2 – 6 Oct. 1986, Lucknow”, BEI 4, 1986: 51 – 55.
  93. “Etudes sur le Rāmāyana en Asie (1980−1986)”, JA, 1987, 1 – 2: 193 – 201.
  94. “Old Khmer and Siamese”, KK 2, Berlin, 1988: 37 – 48.
  95. កម្រងច្បាប់ — Guirlande de Cpap’, Paris, Cedoreck, 1988, 2 vols. 638 p.
  96. [review] ​“Reamker (Ramakerti), the Cambodian version of Ramayana, Translated by J.M. Jacob, London, The Royal Asiatic Society, Oriental Fund, New Series (XLV), 1986, in‑8°, 320 p.”, KK 2, 1988 : 72 – 6.
  97. “Notes on Brahmanic Gods in Theravādin Cambodia”, Indologica Taurinensia, XIV, Colette Caillat Felicitation Volume, 1987 – 88: 339 – 51.
  98. “Sanskrit Loanwords in Old Khmer: Some morphological Observations”, Dialectes dans les littératures indo-aryennes, Pub. ICI, 55, Paris, Collège de France & ICI, 1989: 569 – 78.
  99. “Portrait of Rama in Cambodian (Khmer) Tradition”, Rāmāyaņa Traditions and National Cultures in Asia, D.P. Sinha & S. Sahai eds., Lucknow, Directorate of Cultural Affairs (Uttar Pradesh), 1989: 1 – 7.
  100. Nouvelles Inscriptions du Cambodge, Paris, PEFEO CTDI-XVII, vol. I, 1989, 155 p.
  101. “Le khmer et ses locuteurs”, Language Reform. History and Future, I. Fodor & C. Hagège, eds., Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag, vol. V, 1990: 239 – 52.
  102. “Regard sur les études littéraires khmères”, SK 10 – 13, 1987 – 90: 39 – 58.
  103. “Vocabulaire khmer relatif au surnaturel” [with Ang Choulean], Seksa Khmer 10 – 13, 1990 – 90: 59 – 129. 
  104. C.R. de Khmer Buddhism and Politics from 1954 to 1984 par Yang Sam, Khmer Studies Institute Inc., Newington (U.S.A.), 1987, petit in‑8°, 97 p., SK10 – 13, 1990: 134 – 36.
  105. “Sanskrit, Pali and Khmero-Pāli in Cambodia”, Panels of the VIIth World Sanskrit Conference, vol. VII, Sanskrit outside India, J.G. de Casparis ed., Leiden, Brill, 1991: 13 – 28.
  106. “Les dérivés désidératifs en khmer, Austroasiatic Languages, Essays in honour of H.L. Shorto, London, SOAS, 1991: 183 – 91.
  107. “Les noms des monuments khmers”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 203 – 24, Pl.
  108. “Conférence Internationale sur le Rāmāyaņa de Vālmīki, Turin 1992”, BEI 9, 1991: 235 – 7.
  109. Lectures cambodgiennes — A Cambodian Reader, Paris, Cedoreck, 1991, 109p.
  110. “Notes historico-sémantiques khmères”, Asie du Sud-Est et Monde Insulindien (ASEMI) XII, 1 – 2, 1991 : 111 – 124.
  111. [review] ​“Dialectes dans les littératures indo-aryennes, Paris, Collège de France & ICI, 1989, 578 р.”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 337 – 9.
  112. [review] ​“Ramayana Traditions and National Cultures in Asia, Sinha, D.P. & Sahai, S., ed., Lucknow, 1989, 22×28, 222 p., illustr.”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 339 – 42.
  113. [review] ​“Circles of Kings. Political Dynamics in Early Continental Southeast Asia, par Renée Hagesteijn, Dordrecht-Holland, Providence‑U.S.A., 1989, ib‑8°, 175 р.”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 347 – 9.
  114. [review] ​“A Glossarial Index of the Sukhothai Inscriptions par Ishii, Y, & Al., Bangkok, Amarin Publication, 1989, 15 x 26, 254 p.”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 349 – 51.
  115. Dictionaire vieux khmer-français-anglais — An Old Khmer-French-English Dictionary — វចនានុក្រមខ្មែរចាស់-បារាំង‑អង្លេស, Paris, Cedoreck, 1992, 555 p. ISBN 2−86731−023−7; 2d augmented edition: Paris, L’Harmattan, 2004, 732 p.
  116. “Khmer cuisine vocabulary”, KK 4, 1992:50 – 60.
  117. “Des mots khmers désignant ​‘les documents écrits’ ”, MKS XX, Thompson Festschrift, 1992: 11 – 17.
  118. “From Old Khmer Epigraphy to popular Tradition: A study of the names of Cambodian monuments”, Southeast Asian Archaeology 1990, Proceedings of the Third Conference of the EASEAA, Ian Glover ed., Centre for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1992: 7 – 24.
  119. “Indigenization of Rāmāyana in Cambodia”, Asian Folklore Studies (AFS) vol. LI‑1, 1992: 89 – 102.
  120. [review] ​“Rāmāyaņa and Rāmāyaņas, ed. Monika Thiel-Horstmann, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1991, 259 p.”, AFS LI‑2, 1992: 376 – 8.
  121. “From Old Khmer Epigraphy to Popular Tradition: A study of the names of Cambodian monuments”, Southeast Asian Archaeology, Proceedings of the Third Conference of the EASEAA, Ian Glover ed., Center for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1992: 7 – 24.
  122. “Īsūr-īśvara, ou Śiva, au Cambodge”, Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica (OLP), 24, 1993: 143 – 77.
  123. “From Valmiki to Theravāda Buddhism: The example of the Khmer classical Rāmakerti”, Indologica Taurinensia, XIX-XX, Proceedings of the Ninth International Rāmāyana Conference (Torino, April 13 th-17th, 1992), 1993 – 4:267 – 84.
  124. “Vişnu-Nārāy au Cambodge”, OLP 25, 1994: 175 – 95.
  125. “L’offrande des mérites dans la tradition khmère, JA, CCLXXXII, 2, 1994:391 – 408.
  126. “Indra et Brahma au Cambodge”, OLP, 26, 1995: 141 – 61.
  127. “Introduction à l’étude du vieux khmer” [with S. Vogel], Cahiers d’études franco-cambodgiennes (CEFC), 4, Jan. 1995: 1 – 41.
  128. “Mahori khmer: étude culturelle”, CEFC, 5, Jul. 1995: 1 – 23.
  129. Nouvelles inscriptions du Cambodge, II, EFEO, Paris, 192 p.
  130. “Les termes grammaticaux du vieux khmer (6è-14è siècle)”, BEFEO 83, 1996: 21 – 34.
  131. “L’épigraphie khmère”, Angkor et dix siècles d’art khmer, Paris, RMN, 1997: 53 – 61.
  132. “Khmer Epigraphy”, Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millenium of Glory, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1997:53 – 61.
  133. “Les termes grammaticaux du vieux khmer (6è-14è siècles)”, Péninsule 34 (1), 1996: 95 – 117.
  134. “Music and Dance in Ancient Cambodia as Evidenced by Old Khmer Epigraphy”, East and West, IsIAO, Vol. 47, 1 – 4, Dec. 1997: 229 – 48.
  135. “Ancient Cambodia’s Epigraphy: a Socio-linguistic Look”, Southeast Asian Archaeology 1996, University of Hull, 1998: 123 – 34.
  136. “Ancient Cambodia’s Epigraphy: the Concept of Merit-making and Merit-offering, Southeast Asian Archaeology 1994, Univeersity of Hull, 1998: 97 – 102.
  137. “Dieux et rois dans la pensée khmère ancienne”, JA, 286 – 2, 1998: 653 – 69.
  138. “Praśasta Kamvujā ou Epigraphie du Cambodge”, OLP, 29, 1998: 113 – 26.
  139. “What is Khmerology?”, Khmer, 1 – 16, transl. by Vong Sotheara, English, 1 – 10, Phnom Penh, Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, 2000.
  140. Nouvelles inscriptions du Cambodge, II & III, EFEO, 288 p.
  141. “Āśrama dans l’ancien Cambodge”, JA, 290 – 1, 2002: 315 – 339.
  142. “The concept of avatara in the Ramayana Tradition of Cambodia”, OLP.
  143. “Nouveau regard sur Śiva-īśvara au Cambodge”, BEFEO 89, 2002: 145 – 82.
  144. Choix d’articles de Khmérologie. Selected Papers on Khmerology [presented by Grégory Mikaelian], Phnom Penh, Reyum, 2003, 503 p.
  145. “The concept of avatara in the Ramayana Tradition of Cambodia”, OLP 31, 2005:123 – 35.
  146. “Les fleurs dans la culture khmère”, JA 293 – 1, 2005: 45 – 98.
  147. “Comment nommer les espèces végétales nouvelles: Le Lexique khmer moyen”, JA 294 – 2, 2006: 373 – 407.
  148. Ramakerti I: ​‘La Gloire de Rama’, drame épique médiéval du Cambodge [with Grégory Mikaelian], Paris, L’Harmattan, 2007.
  149. “Emprunts lexicaux khmer-moyens au monde indo-persan”, JA 296 – 1,2008:141 – 156.
  150. Nouvelles inscriptions du Cambodge vol IV, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2011.
  151. សទ្ទានុក្រម សំស្រ្កឹតខ្មែរ‑បារាំង — Lexique de Sanskrit-Khmer-Français (Sanskrit utilisé au Cambodge), Editions Angkor, Phnom Penh, 2013.
  152. [awaiting publication] ​“Satya, śapatha and sāksī in Cambodia’s Tradition”, Proceedings of the 13th World Sanskrit, Edinburgh Conference, July 2006.
  153. [awaiting publication] ​“Un texte de Satyapranīdhān du 17e siècle cambodgien” [with Grégory Mikaelian].
  154. Un dictionnaire du khmer-moyen, Phnom Penh, Buddhist Institute, Sāstrā Publishing House, 2017, 325 p. 

Conference Communications

  1. International seminar on Rāmāyaņa traditions and national culture In Asia, Lucknow (India), 2 – 6 Oct.1986.
  2. Conférence Internationale sur le Rāmāyaņa de Valmīki, Torino (Italy), 1992 [BEI 9, 1991: 235 – 7].
  3. La langue khmère, la linguistique et le khmer, manuel de grammaire khmère: perspective de travail, emprunts indo-aryens, lexique et datationm. La littérature khmère: thème et genres littéraires, état des études littéraires khmères et littérature khmère, Phnom Penh Royal University with Alliance française and Cercle de linguistique franco-khmere, 9 – 23 February 1993.
  4. Ancient Cambodia’s Epigraphy: a Socio-Linguistic Look, European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, 6th International Con-ference, Leiden (the Netherlands), 02 – 06 September 1996.
  5. Phnom Penh Buddhist Institute: research at the invitation of Dr. Hema, UN Cultural Section representative in Cambodia, 24 Dec 1998- 19 Jan. 1999.
  6. The Hermitage (Asrama) in Ancient Cambodia as Evidenced by Epigraphy, Albert-Ludwings Universität Freibourg, Orientalisches Seminar, Indologia, 11 Nov. 1999.
  7. The Victoria and Albert Museum and the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, Proceedings of the 10th EurASEAA Conference, London, 14 – 17 Sept. 2004.
  8. Satya, Sapatha and Šaksi in Cambodia’s Tradition, Proceedings of the 13th World Sanskrit Conference, Edingburgh, (Scotland, UK), 10 – 14 July 2006.
  9. Kalpana in Ancient Cambodia, Proceeding of the 10th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, London, 2008.