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Music and Dance in Ancient Cambodia as Evidenced by Old Khmer Epigraphy

by Saveros Pou

Author(s): Saveros Pou Source:

Publication: East and West, Vol. 47, No. 1/4, pp. 229-248 | Istituto Italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente (IsIAO) via jstor.org

Published: December 1997

Author: Saveros Pou

Pages: 20

Language : English

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Revisiting Bernard Philippe Groslier​’s 1965 study on the subject, the famous linguist and epigraphist first makes an important point: ​“In Khmer epigraphy there is no such text as dealing with history (chronicles, diaries, annals, etc.), let alone with art. All Khmer stone inscriptions relate facts connected with three main themes: a) religion, b) the rulers of the land, i.e. kings, and c) the land itself. (…) All the information we have collected on music and dance is of an incidental nature.”

The centrality of dance and music in Angkorean rituals is established by linguistical observations: ​“From len derived, as evidenced by Mid. and Mod. Khm., the nouns bhlen ​‘music’, and Ipaen ​‘games, entertainment, amusement, etc.’. We must always bear in mind that games and music have been the most significant instruments of worship in Cambodia’s ritual system, whether people worshipped brahmanic gods, animistic spirits, or even the Buddha.”

From the offerings to Sarasvati, the goddess of eloquence and arts, to the development of music and dance as court entertainment, the author takes us through exciting considerations. As for the gender and social status of artists, she remarks: ​“Some statements made by contemporary observers need amendments in the light of the present survey, if we want to keep Khmer culture in the right perspective. For instance, it has been pointed out that Khmer musicians are mainly, if not solely, males. Epigraphy, though, bears witness to the presence of female instrumentalists in ancient Cambodia, plucking strings of various instruments, and even beating drums. This apparently out-of-place picture was still to be seen in my childhood, and also recorded in many past publications and postcards. Therefore, scholars should remember to consult documents of the past before assessing facts of modern times.

“The second instance regards the social status of musicians and dancers of old. They have been said to belong only to the low class, tied down — some would even say ​‘enslaved’ — to serving the gods on behalf of their masters. Now, Angkorian texts provide a different picture altogether. Indeed, the master could be the state represented by the king. This alone suggests that music and dance had reached a climax to become an institution. We have seen the term varna rnam or ​‘corporation of dancers’.”

We’ll also note the author’s comments on ​“sacred” and ​“sensuality”: ​“We all agree on the sacred aspect of music and dance — and games for that matter — in Cambodia. Ample evidence thereof is provided by epigraphy, in particular through numerous lists of servants. The present paper goes a bit further as to assess the purport of proper names. The first remark is that many are anything but sacred. Such names as stanottari ​‘having huge breasts’ or rativindu ​‘bearing the mark of love’, borne by temple dancers might shock some foreign minds or lead them to some out-of-the-way interpretation. The same fact could be observed in modern Cambodia, too, actually. 

“There is then a discrepancy, apparently, between the sacred function of artists and the onomastic reference to their sensuality. In order to clarify the matter, we must evoke another dimension of it, i.e. the human one represented by the donator or patron who organized ceremonies, made lavish offerings to the gods, and owned large staffs of servants. This well-off master and donator was called yajamana or sthapaka, according to the sort of ceremonies he performed. Now, if a ballet-girl was called rattimatti ​‘delightul’ or priyaseni ​‘the beloved servant’, reference thereof should be made to the master, not to the god. This brings us very near to the 19th century, or even early 20th century, when many high officials, rich men, owned artistic troops, sometimes comparable with small harems, and had them perform for their own official duty and pleasure, and occasionally for worship. Thus, the sensuousness as found in some artists’ proper names must be given a social definition, and does not by any means tamper with the sacredness of art.

“A final onomastic remark concerns the names manohara, ‑ri, ‑rika, as meaning ​‘ravishing, enrapturing, fascinating, charming’. This popular name of artist is not to be found in modern times. Nevertheless, the common vocabulary has kept after Angkor the form manohari, shortened into mahori, to designate a type of music.”

Photo: Angkor Thom (beg. 12th century), A sword-swallower flanked by a female cymbalist and a drum-beater.

Tags: music, dance, epigraphy, linguistics, sacred, sensuality, women, gender roles

About the Author

Saveros Pou

Saveros Pou (Saveros Lewitz in the 1960s-1970s) ពៅ សាវរស (1929, Phnom Penh- 25 May 2020, France) was a French linguist of Cambodian origin. A retired research director of the CNRS in Paris, a specialist of the Khmer language and civilization, she carried out extensive work of Khmer epigraphy, starting as a young researcher with teachers George Cœdès, Jean Filliozat, Louis Renou, Armand Minard, Anne-Marie Esnoul, André Bareau and the Cambodian intellectual living in Paris Au Chhieng.

Born in a high-society and learned family — her uncle, Nhieuk Nou (1900−1982), was ​‘okhnya mahamantri’, Royal Palace secretary, and her grandfather, Ker Nou (1864−1958), a judge and ​‘pandit’ (sage) -, Saveros Pou went to the Sutharot Girls School and Lycée Sisowath before moving to France for higher education, to become a leading researcher in linguistics and social history of Cambodia, as well as a respected teacher for several generations. Residing in England in the 1970s and 1980s, she furthered her research in several US universities, in particular in Hawaii.

Her work in the field of etymology, specifically applied to old Khmer (from 6th to 14th centuries) was seminal, while her varied skills enabled her to tackle areas such as the very rich processes of derivation in Khmer, religion, codes of conduct, zoology and botany, culinary art, etc. This encyclopedic approach is reflected in her Dictionnaire vieux khmer-français-anglais.

‘Madame Pou’ is the author of more than 150 books and articles, published in several orientalist journals such as the Journal Asiatique and the Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient. Saveros Pou’s last book published before her death was Un dictionnaire du khmer-moyen (Phnom Penh, Buddhist Institute, Sāstrā Publishing House, 2017).

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Mme Saveros Pou in 1970 (photo Reyum/​Mikaelian)
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Prof. Pou Saveros in 1996 (photo by ហម ឆាយលី Ham Chhayly).

Publications

[sources: a) ADB Library Research; b) Grégory Mikaelian​’s bibliography of Pou Saveros in Choix d’articles de Khmérologie. Selected Papers on Khmerology; c) Alida Ham’s bibliography in ជីវប្រវត្តិរបស់លោកស្រីបណ្ឌិត សាស្ត្រាចារ្យ ពៅ សាវរស (កម្រងសិក្សាខ្មែរចងក្រងដើម្បីរំឭកឧបការគុណ និងឧទ្ទិសជូនដល់លោកស្រីបណ្ឌិត‑សាស្រ្តចារ្យ) [A Biography of Dr. Pou Savros ( Khmer study series compiled in commemoration and dedication to Dr. Pou Savros)], compiled by ហម ឆាយលី Ham Chhayly, Phnom Penh, BE 2559 (2016), 49 p.]

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  3. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (II): Mots sanskrits considérés comme khmers”, JA, 1967 2: 243 – 60. [RVC2]
  4. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien (III): Mots khmers considérés à tort comme d’origine siamoise”, JA, 1967 3 – 4: 285 – 304. [RVC3]
  5. “La dérivation en cambodgien moderne”, Revue de l’Ecole Nationale des Langues Orientales Vivantes (RENLOV), IV, 1967: 65 – 84.
  6. “L’accentuation syllabique en cambodgien”, Papers of the CIC Far Eastern Institute, Michigan 1968: 155 – 67.
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  48. “Inscriptions en khmer moyen de Vat Athvéa (K. 261)”, BEFEO LXIV, 1977:151 – 66.
  49. “Les Cpap’ ou ​‘Codes de conduite’ khmers III. Cpap’ Kūn cau” [with P.N. Jenner], BEFEO LXIV, 1977: 167 – 215. [CPAP3]
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  52. “Inscription dite de Brai Svay ou ​‘Bois des Manguiers’ de Sukhoday”, BEFEO LXV, 1978, 333 – 59.
  53. “Les Cpāp’ IV. Cpāp’ Rājaneti ou Cpap’ Brah Rājasambhār” [with P.N. Jenner), BEFEO LXV, 1978: 361 – 402. [CPAP4]
  54. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien X. L’étymologie populaire”, JA, 1978: 153 – 77. [RVC10]
  55. Rāmakerti (XVIè-XVIIè siècles) (Textes khmer), Paris, PEFEO vol. CXVII, 1979, 339p.
  56. “Les Cpap’ V. Cpap’ Kram” [with P.N. Jenner], BEFEO LXVI, 1979: 129 – 60. [CPAP5]
  57. “Les pronoms personnels du khmer: origine et évolution”, SEALS 4, Canberra, 1979: 155 – 78.
  58. “Une description de la phrase en vieux-khmer”, MKS VIII, 1979: 139 – 69.
  59. “Subhāsit and Cpap’ in Khmer Literature”, in Ludwik Sternbach Felicitation Volume, J.P. Sinha ed., Akila Bharatyia Sanskrit Parishad, Lucknow, 1979, I: 331 – 48.
  60. “Some proper names in the Khmer Rāmakerti”, South East Asian Review (SEAR), 1980. V, 2: 19 – 29.
  61. “Inscriptions khmères K.144 et K.177”, BEFEO LXX, 1981: 101 – 20.
  62. “Inscriptions khmères K.39 et K.27”, BEFEO LXX, 1981: 121 – 33.
  63. “Les Cpāp’ ou ​‘Codes de conduite’ khmers VI. Cpap’ Trineti” [with P.N. Jenner], BEFEO LXX, 1981: 135 – 93. [CPAP6]
  64. “La littérature didactique khmère : les Cpap”, JA, 1981: 454 – 66.
  65. “Liste d’ouvrages de Cpap’ ” [with K. Haksrea], JA, 1981 : 467 – 83.
  66. [review] ​“Seksa Khmer, Nº 1 – 2, Déc. 1980, Cedoreck, Paris, in‑8°, 241 р.”, JA, 1981: 516 – 8.
  67. “Etudes rāmakertiennes”, Seksa Khmer (SK), 3 – 4, 1981:89 – 110.
  68. “Inventaire des œuvres sur le Rāmāyaņa khmer (Rāmakerti)”, (en coll. avec Lan Sunnary, K. Haksrea), Seksa Khmer, 3 – 4, 1981: 111 – 26.
  69. A Lexicon of Khmer Morphology [with P.N. Jenner], Mon-Khmer Studies IX‑X, Honolulu, 1980 – 81, in‑8°, 524 p.
  70. “Les noms de plantes dans l’épigraphie vieux-khmère” [with M.A. Martin], ASEMI XII, 1 – 2, 1981: 3 – 73.
  71. “Notes historico-sémantiques khmères “, ASEMI XII, 1 – 2, 1981: 111 – 24.
  72. Rāmakerti II (Deuxième version du Rāmāyana khmer), Paris, PEFEO vol. CXXXII, 1982, 305 p.
  73. “Jean Filliozat: le guru que j’ai connu, SK 5, 1982: 5 – 9.
  74. “Du sanskrit kīrti au khmer kerti : Une tradition littéraire du Cambodge”, SK 5, 1982: 33 – 54.
  75. “A propos du nom d’une plante jir”, SK 5, 1982:55 – 60.
  76. “Dharma and trivarga in the Khmer Language”,Dr. Babu Ram Saksena Felicitation Volume, XI-XV, J.P. Sinha ed., Lucknow, 1983: 289 – 97.
  77. “Rāmakertian Studies”, Asian Variations in Ramayana, Srinivasa Iyengar ed., Delhi, Sahitya Akademi, 1983: 252 – 62.
  78. “Recherches sur le vocabulaire cambodgien XI. Des verbes ​‘parler’ en khmer, JA, 1983, 3 – 4: 345 – 62. [RVC11]
  79. “A propos de ramās bhloen ou ​‘rhinocéros du Feu’ », SK 6, 1983: 3 – 9.
  80. Nouvelles préfaces (2 x 10p. KH+FR) aux Inscriptions modernes d’Angkor, Paris, Réimpression Cedoreck, 1984. [IMANGK9]
  81. “Sarasvati dans la culture khmère”, Bulletin d’Etudes Indiennes (BEI), 2, 1984: 207 – 12.
  82. “Lexicographie vieux-khmère, SK 7, 1984, 67 – 175, Pl.
  83. [review] ​“Khmer Ceramics, Singapore, 1981”, SK 7, 1984: 255 – 7.
  84. [review] ​“Mahāvessantarajātak (Nuk Thaem, éd.), Paris, Réimpression Cedoreck & ABK, 1982, in‑8°, 480 p.”, SK 7, 1984: 257 – 62.
  85. [review] ​“Khmer = Kham par Chatra Prem Reudi, République Khmère, Phnompenh, 1974”, SK 7, 1984:262 – 5.
  86. Notes sur les coutumes et croyances superstitieuses des Cambodgiens par Etienne Aymonier (Commentaire et présentation), Paris, Cedoreck, 1984, 116 p.
  87. “Old Khmer Lexicology”, Indus Valley to Mekong Delta. Explorations in Epigraphy, Madras, New Era Publications, 1985: 287 – 99.
  88. “Rāmakerti — The Khmer (or Cambodian) Rāmāyaņa”, Sanskrit and World Culture, SCHR. OR., 18, Berlin, 1986: 203 – 11.
  89. “Indic Loanwords in Khmer other than Sanskrit”, Kambodschanische Kultur (KK) 1, Berlin, 1986: 48 – 55.
  90. “Vocabulaire khmer relatif aux éléphants”, JA, CCLXXIV, 3 – 4, 1986: 311 – 402.
  91. “Sarasvati dans la culture khmère”, BEI 4, 1986: 321 – 39.
  92. [review] ​“International Seminar on Rāmāyaņa. Traditions and National Cultures in Asia 2 – 6 Oct. 1986, Lucknow”, BEI 4, 1986: 51 – 55.
  93. “Etudes sur le Rāmāyana en Asie (1980−1986)”, JA, 1987, 1 – 2: 193 – 201.
  94. “Old Khmer and Siamese”, KK 2, Berlin, 1988: 37 – 48.
  95. កម្រងច្បាប់ — Guirlande de Cpap’, Paris, Cedoreck, 1988, 2 vols. 638 p.
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  97. “Notes on Brahmanic Gods in Theravādin Cambodia”, Indologica Taurinensia, XIV, Colette Caillat Felicitation Volume, 1987 – 88: 339 – 51.
  98. “Sanskrit Loanwords in Old Khmer: Some morphological Observations”, Dialectes dans les littératures indo-aryennes, Pub. ICI, 55, Paris, Collège de France & ICI, 1989: 569 – 78.
  99. “Portrait of Rama in Cambodian (Khmer) Tradition”, Rāmāyaņa Traditions and National Cultures in Asia, D.P. Sinha & S. Sahai eds., Lucknow, Directorate of Cultural Affairs (Uttar Pradesh), 1989: 1 – 7.
  100. Nouvelles Inscriptions du Cambodge, Paris, PEFEO CTDI-XVII, vol. I, 1989, 155 p.
  101. “Le khmer et ses locuteurs”, Language Reform. History and Future, I. Fodor & C. Hagège, eds., Hamburg, Helmut Buske Verlag, vol. V, 1990: 239 – 52.
  102. “Regard sur les études littéraires khmères”, SK 10 – 13, 1987 – 90: 39 – 58.
  103. “Vocabulaire khmer relatif au surnaturel” [with Ang Choulean], Seksa Khmer 10 – 13, 1990 – 90: 59 – 129. 
  104. C.R. de Khmer Buddhism and Politics from 1954 to 1984 par Yang Sam, Khmer Studies Institute Inc., Newington (U.S.A.), 1987, petit in‑8°, 97 p., SK10 – 13, 1990: 134 – 36.
  105. “Sanskrit, Pali and Khmero-Pāli in Cambodia”, Panels of the VIIth World Sanskrit Conference, vol. VII, Sanskrit outside India, J.G. de Casparis ed., Leiden, Brill, 1991: 13 – 28.
  106. “Les dérivés désidératifs en khmer, Austroasiatic Languages, Essays in honour of H.L. Shorto, London, SOAS, 1991: 183 – 91.
  107. “Les noms des monuments khmers”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 203 – 24, Pl.
  108. “Conférence Internationale sur le Rāmāyaņa de Vālmīki, Turin 1992”, BEI 9, 1991: 235 – 7.
  109. Lectures cambodgiennes — A Cambodian Reader, Paris, Cedoreck, 1991, 109p.
  110. “Notes historico-sémantiques khmères”, Asie du Sud-Est et Monde Insulindien (ASEMI) XII, 1 – 2, 1991 : 111 – 124.
  111. [review] ​“Dialectes dans les littératures indo-aryennes, Paris, Collège de France & ICI, 1989, 578 р.”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 337 – 9.
  112. [review] ​“Ramayana Traditions and National Cultures in Asia, Sinha, D.P. & Sahai, S., ed., Lucknow, 1989, 22×28, 222 p., illustr.”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 339 – 42.
  113. [review] ​“Circles of Kings. Political Dynamics in Early Continental Southeast Asia, par Renée Hagesteijn, Dordrecht-Holland, Providence‑U.S.A., 1989, ib‑8°, 175 р.”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 347 – 9.
  114. [review] ​“A Glossarial Index of the Sukhothai Inscriptions par Ishii, Y, & Al., Bangkok, Amarin Publication, 1989, 15 x 26, 254 p.”, BEFEO LXXVIII, 1991: 349 – 51.
  115. Dictionaire vieux khmer-français-anglais — An Old Khmer-French-English Dictionary — វចនានុក្រមខ្មែរចាស់-បារាំង‑អង្លេស, Paris, Cedoreck, 1992, 555 p. ISBN 2−86731−023−7; 2d augmented edition: Paris, L’Harmattan, 2004, 732 p.
  116. “Khmer cuisine vocabulary”, KK 4, 1992:50 – 60.
  117. “Des mots khmers désignant ​‘les documents écrits’ ”, MKS XX, Thompson Festschrift, 1992: 11 – 17.
  118. “From Old Khmer Epigraphy to popular Tradition: A study of the names of Cambodian monuments”, Southeast Asian Archaeology 1990, Proceedings of the Third Conference of the EASEAA, Ian Glover ed., Centre for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1992: 7 – 24.
  119. “Indigenization of Rāmāyana in Cambodia”, Asian Folklore Studies (AFS) vol. LI‑1, 1992: 89 – 102.
  120. [review] ​“Rāmāyaņa and Rāmāyaņas, ed. Monika Thiel-Horstmann, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrassowitz, 1991, 259 p.”, AFS LI‑2, 1992: 376 – 8.
  121. “From Old Khmer Epigraphy to Popular Tradition: A study of the names of Cambodian monuments”, Southeast Asian Archaeology, Proceedings of the Third Conference of the EASEAA, Ian Glover ed., Center for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1992: 7 – 24.
  122. “Īsūr-īśvara, ou Śiva, au Cambodge”, Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica (OLP), 24, 1993: 143 – 77.
  123. “From Valmiki to Theravāda Buddhism: The example of the Khmer classical Rāmakerti”, Indologica Taurinensia, XIX-XX, Proceedings of the Ninth International Rāmāyana Conference (Torino, April 13 th-17th, 1992), 1993 – 4:267 – 84.
  124. “Vişnu-Nārāy au Cambodge”, OLP 25, 1994: 175 – 95.
  125. “L’offrande des mérites dans la tradition khmère, JA, CCLXXXII, 2, 1994:391 – 408.
  126. “Indra et Brahma au Cambodge”, OLP, 26, 1995: 141 – 61.
  127. “Introduction à l’étude du vieux khmer” [with S. Vogel], Cahiers d’études franco-cambodgiennes (CEFC), 4, Jan. 1995: 1 – 41.
  128. “Mahori khmer: étude culturelle”, CEFC, 5, Jul. 1995: 1 – 23.
  129. Nouvelles inscriptions du Cambodge, II, EFEO, Paris, 192 p.
  130. “Les termes grammaticaux du vieux khmer (6è-14è siècle)”, BEFEO 83, 1996: 21 – 34.
  131. “L’épigraphie khmère”, Angkor et dix siècles d’art khmer, Paris, RMN, 1997: 53 – 61.
  132. “Khmer Epigraphy”, Sculpture of Angkor and Ancient Cambodia: Millenium of Glory, National Gallery of Art, Washington, 1997:53 – 61.
  133. “Les termes grammaticaux du vieux khmer (6è-14è siècles)”, Péninsule 34 (1), 1996: 95 – 117.
  134. “Music and Dance in Ancient Cambodia as Evidenced by Old Khmer Epigraphy”, East and West, IsIAO, Vol. 47, 1 – 4, Dec. 1997: 229 – 48.
  135. “Ancient Cambodia’s Epigraphy: a Socio-linguistic Look”, Southeast Asian Archaeology 1996, University of Hull, 1998: 123 – 34.
  136. “Ancient Cambodia’s Epigraphy: the Concept of Merit-making and Merit-offering, Southeast Asian Archaeology 1994, Univeersity of Hull, 1998: 97 – 102.
  137. “Dieux et rois dans la pensée khmère ancienne”, JA, 286 – 2, 1998: 653 – 69.
  138. “Praśasta Kamvujā ou Epigraphie du Cambodge”, OLP, 29, 1998: 113 – 26.
  139. “What is Khmerology?”, Khmer, 1 – 16, transl. by Vong Sotheara, English, 1 – 10, Phnom Penh, Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, 2000.
  140. Nouvelles inscriptions du Cambodge, II & III, EFEO, 288 p.
  141. “Āśrama dans l’ancien Cambodge”, JA, 290 – 1, 2002: 315 – 339.
  142. “The concept of avatara in the Ramayana Tradition of Cambodia”, OLP.
  143. “Nouveau regard sur Śiva-īśvara au Cambodge”, BEFEO 89, 2002: 145 – 82.
  144. Choix d’articles de Khmérologie. Selected Papers on Khmerology [presented by Grégory Mikaelian], Phnom Penh, Reyum, 2003, 503 p.
  145. “The concept of avatara in the Ramayana Tradition of Cambodia”, OLP 31, 2005:123 – 35.
  146. “Les fleurs dans la culture khmère”, JA 293 – 1, 2005: 45 – 98.
  147. “Comment nommer les espèces végétales nouvelles: Le Lexique khmer moyen”, JA 294 – 2, 2006: 373 – 407.
  148. Ramakerti I: ​‘La Gloire de Rama’, drame épique médiéval du Cambodge [with Grégory Mikaelian], Paris, L’Harmattan, 2007.
  149. “Emprunts lexicaux khmer-moyens au monde indo-persan”, JA 296 – 1,2008:141 – 156.
  150. Nouvelles inscriptions du Cambodge vol IV, Paris, L’Harmattan, 2011.
  151. សទ្ទានុក្រម សំស្រ្កឹតខ្មែរ‑បារាំង — Lexique de Sanskrit-Khmer-Français (Sanskrit utilisé au Cambodge), Editions Angkor, Phnom Penh, 2013.
  152. [awaiting publication] ​“Satya, śapatha and sāksī in Cambodia’s Tradition”, Proceedings of the 13th World Sanskrit, Edinburgh Conference, July 2006.
  153. [awaiting publication] ​“Un texte de Satyapranīdhān du 17e siècle cambodgien” [with Grégory Mikaelian].
  154. Un dictionnaire du khmer-moyen, Phnom Penh, Buddhist Institute, Sāstrā Publishing House, 2017, 325 p. 

Conference Communications

  1. International seminar on Rāmāyaņa traditions and national culture In Asia, Lucknow (India), 2 – 6 Oct.1986.
  2. Conférence Internationale sur le Rāmāyaņa de Valmīki, Torino (Italy), 1992 [BEI 9, 1991: 235 – 7].
  3. La langue khmère, la linguistique et le khmer, manuel de grammaire khmère: perspective de travail, emprunts indo-aryens, lexique et datationm. La littérature khmère: thème et genres littéraires, état des études littéraires khmères et littérature khmère, Phnom Penh Royal University with Alliance française and Cercle de linguistique franco-khmere, 9 – 23 February 1993.
  4. Ancient Cambodia’s Epigraphy: a Socio-Linguistic Look, European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, 6th International Con-ference, Leiden (the Netherlands), 02 – 06 September 1996.
  5. Phnom Penh Buddhist Institute: research at the invitation of Dr. Hema, UN Cultural Section representative in Cambodia, 24 Dec 1998- 19 Jan. 1999.
  6. The Hermitage (Asrama) in Ancient Cambodia as Evidenced by Epigraphy, Albert-Ludwings Universität Freibourg, Orientalisches Seminar, Indologia, 11 Nov. 1999.
  7. The Victoria and Albert Museum and the Institute of Archaeology, University College London, Proceedings of the 10th EurASEAA Conference, London, 14 – 17 Sept. 2004.
  8. Satya, Sapatha and Šaksi in Cambodia’s Tradition, Proceedings of the 13th World Sanskrit Conference, Edingburgh, (Scotland, UK), 10 – 14 July 2006.
  9. Kalpana in Ancient Cambodia, Proceeding of the 10th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, London, 2008.