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Quelques hypothèses sur l'étymologie du terme 'Khmer' | Etymological Speculations on the 'Khmer" Word

by Michel Antelme

Where did the term 'Khmer' come from? An innovative and stimulating study.

Publication: Péninsule, 37 (new series), pp 157-92

Published: 1997

Author: Michel Antelme

Pages: 35

Language : French

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While scholars and researchers have usually looked for a Sanskrit or Pali etymology to the word Khmer (ខ្មែរ in modern language), the author offers a different approach, researching root words amongst the Austroasiatic linguistic group, to which Khmer language belongs, and particularly Mon-Khmer idioms.

Oral and scriptural traditions have vinculated the term Cambodia to Kambuja, Sanskrit name (कम्बोज) of an ascetic monk who sired the nation with a local female deity. Attempts to link that name to the Kambojas, a tribe of Iron Age India that became one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas (great kingdoms) of ancient India and fought against Alexander the Great, have not been conclusive. 

But this etymology does not apply to the word Khmer. And as for the possible Pali origin, from khemara, ​“the one who lives in well-being”, the author shows that this guesswork was based on the Siamese distortion of the word Khmer into Khamen.

After considering several possible origins, traceable in various Mon-Khmer languages, the author asserts that ​‘Khmer’ initially meant ​“celui qui essarte (pour créer un champ)”, ​“ground-clearer”, thus establishing its identity as a resolutely agrarian ethnic group.

In appendix, the author lists the earliest occurrences of different forms for the ethnonym Khmer:

  • Kvir (L. Finot), kmir or kur (E. Aymonier) in Old Cham epigraphy, as early as the 11th century.
  • Kemir in Old Javanese (in an inscription dated 1305 CE by Zoetmulder).
  • Ki-miei, ki-mieh, kiêt-miêt or kao-mien in Chinese sources, also pronounced ji-mie in Southern China (modern pronounciation?).
  • Qmar, qmaar, qimar, qimir, q’umar, qmayr in Arabic as early as early as the 9th and 10th centuries. [ADB Input: Gabriel Ferrand transcribes Kimar. In modern Arabic,الخمير, Al Khamir. But quoting the Arab traveler Ibn Sa’id, Ferrand also uses قمور, Komr or Komor, and comments: ​“Les Komr apparentés aux Chinois = Khmèr’ qui habitaient initialement l’Extrême-Orient, émigrent successivement de l’intérieur du continent où ils étaient voisins des Chinois, dans les îles voisines = Indo-Chine, péninsule malaise et Indonésie; dans la grande île qui porte leur nom, l’île de Komr ou Komor, capitale Komoriyya = Madagascar; et de là, dans le pays de la montagne Komr = Afrique orientale. Il est fait dans le texte de Ibn Sa’ïd, nettement mention d’un habitat des Komr avec les Chinois dans l’intérieur de l’Asie orientale, puis d’une descente vers les côtes, la mer et les îles; de la colonisation d’une grande île et enfin d’une dernière émigration sur le continent de la montagne Komr.” (pp 318 – 19)]

Photo: At Bayon Temple ប្រាសាទបាយ័ន in 2020, by @chiva_pech

Tags: Mon-Khmer, Austronesian, ethnology, linguistics, Sanskrit, Pali, Kambuja, emigration

About the Author

Michel Antelme

A Professor at the Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales (INALCO, Paris), Michel Rethy Antelme មីស្ហែល ឫទ្ធី អង់តែល្ម (b. 1966, Troyes, France) is a linguist, educator, translator and historian specialized in Ancient and Modern Khmer.

He has taught translation and linguistics in Cambodia, authored several dictionaries and lexicons — his Khmer-French Dictionary (in collaboration with Hélèné Suppya Bru-Nut) has some 16,500 entries — and designed Khmer fonts such as Kampot Gras (2 styles), Kompong B, Lekh Hora B and Lekh Hora Mool. He also studies local dialects derived from the Khmer language.

Michel Rethy Antelme has copy edited numerous publications for the Center of Khmer Studies (CKS). He is a scientific advisor to the CKS review Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ and to Bulletin de l’AEFEK (Association d’échanges et de formation pour les études khmères).

Publications

[under construction]

  1. La Réappropriation en khmer de mots siamois empruntés au vieux khmer, coll. ​“Ombres d’Orient. Sociétés d’Asie du Sud-Est”, Patani, Prince of Songkla University, 1996, 154 p. ISBN ‏:978 – 9746057080
  2. “Quelques hypothèses sur l’étymologie du terme ​“Khmer””, Péninsule 37 – 2, 1998, p. 157 – 192.
  3. [with Hélèné Suppya Bru-Nut] Dictionnaire français–khmer វចនានុក្រម បារាំង‑ខ្មែរ, L’Asiathèque, Paris, 2001, 912 p.; 2d augmented ed., Paris, L’Asiathèque, 2013, 1693 p.
  4. “Note on the Transliteration of Khmer”, Udaya 3, 2002, p. 1 – 16.
  5. « Khmer », in Le Nom composé. Données sur seize langues, dir. Pierre J. L. ARNAUD (Travaux du C.R.T.T.), Lyon, Presses Universitaires de Lyon, 2004, p. 149 – 183.
  6. “À propos d’un texte sur les nombres, les mesures traditionnelles, etc., rédigé par le Hluoṅ Bibhăkti Dhānī, yokpătr de Chrui Changvar, pour Adhémard Leclère”, [KH អំពីអត្ថបទ ១ ស្តីពីចំនួន រង្វាស់រង្វាល់ បុរាណ ។ល។ ដែលហ្លួងពិភ័ក្តិធានី យោក្ប័ត្រជ្រោយចង្វា បានរៀបរៀង និង ជូន ​“លោកជាធំ” អាដេម៉ារដ៍ ឡឺក្លែរ], Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 6, 2004 p. 20 – 32, 83 – 106. | ​“Erratum et addenda à l’article ​“À propos d’un texte sur les nombres, les mesures traditionnelles, etcrédigé par le Hluoṅ…”” [KH កំណែនិង សេចក្តីបន្ថែមដល់អត្ថបទស្តីពីចំនួន រង្វាស់រង្វាល់បុរាណ ។ល។ ក្នុងសិក្សាចក្រលេខ ៦], Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ, 7, 2005, p. 73 – 74, 185 – 187.
  7. [with Chhem Kieth Rethy] ​“A Khmer Medical Text, ​“The Treatment of the Four Diseases’ manuscript””, [KH អំពីវាន ១ ខ្សែ ក្រោមចំណងជើងថា ​“នេះត្មាំរា័បក្បួនថ្នាំកែ់រោគទ្ង័ា ៤”], Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 6, 2004, p. 33 – 42, 107 – 122.
  8. [with Daoruang Wittarayat] ​“Some Clues on Long-standing Relationships between Cambodia and Peninsular Thailand”,[KH គន្លឹះខ្លះ ៗ ដើម្បីយល់អំពីទំនាក់ទំនង ដែលមានពីយូរលង់ រវាងប្រទេសកម្ពុជា និងភូមិភាគខាងត្បូងនៃ ប្រទេសថៃ], Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 6, 2004, p. 43 – 51, 123 – 138).
  9. “Translation in Cambodia: re-starting from scratch?”, In Focus (Siem Reap) 2, 2004 – 2005, p. 15.
  10. “Le problème des dialectes dans les enquêtes de terrain : le cas du khmer”, Arch’Asie vol. 1‑n 2, 2005, p. 58 – 84.
  11. [with Hélèné Suppya Bru-Nut] Le khmer sans peine, Paris, Assimil, 2014. [book + 5 CDs, 2014, 816 p. ISBN 978 – 2700580419.
  12. [with Hélèné Suppya Bru-Nut] Parlons khmer, L’Harmattan, Paris, 2014. ISBN-13 978 – 2700517842.
  13. “Inventaire provisoire des caractères et divers signes de l’écriture khmère employée pour le khmer, le siamois, les dialectes thaïs méridionaux, le sanskrit et le pāli”, Bulletin de l’AEFEK 12, 2007, 85 p.
  14. “Aperçu sur le calendrier khmer”, Le Bulletin, Association des anciens élèves de l’INALCO, June 2007, p. 45 – 78.
  15. “កំណត់អំពីនិយមន័យ បញ្ញត្តិ និងការបកប្រែពាក្យ ​“យេនឌ័រ”” [“Note on the Definition, Concept and Translation of ​‘Gender’”], in : កម្រងអត្ថបទជ្រើសរើស សិក្សាតំបន់អាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍ ភាគទី ២ វប្បធម៌និង អត្តសញ្ញាណ ៖ ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាក្នុងបរិបទអាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍ [Cultures and Identities: Cambodia in the Southeast Asian Context], Phnom Penh, Centre d’Études Khmères, KH p. 9 – 10, ENG p. 11 – 12.
  16. “Quelques nouvelles pistes de recherché sur l’étymologie du nom Tchen-la”, Péninsule 61 – 2, 2010, p. 11 – 43.
  17. “Quelques considérations sur deux mesures de capacité en vieux khmer et leurs possibles équivalents en khmer moderne : les cas de tloṅ, thloṅ, thlvaṅ ou tanloṅṅ (etc.) et dnāl”, Journal Asiatique 299 – 1, 2011, p. 319 – 367.
  18. “À propos de thṅe en vieux khmer et ses équivalents en khmer moderne : Quand les dialectes confirment les inscriptions “, Aséanie 28, Dec. 2011, p. 11 – 44.
  19. “ពាក្យរង្វាល់ ​“ផ្ល្វង៑” និង ​“ទ្នាល៑” ក្នុងភាសាខ្មែរបុរាណ និងកម្លាយរបស់ពាក្យទាំងពីរនេះក្នុងភាសាខ្មែរទំនើប” in កម្រងអត្ថបទខេមរសិក្សា ឧទ្ទិសជូនបណ្ឌិត សភាចារ្យ ឃឹន សុខ សាស្ត្រាចារ្យបណ្ឌិត ឃួន សុខម្ភូ បណ្ឌិតសភាចារ្យ ឡុង សៀម ប្រមូលចងក្រង និងរៀបចំ បោះពុម្ព ដោយបណ្ឌិតសភាចារ្យ ឃីង ហុកឌី [Mélanges des études khmères en hommage aux prof. Drs Khin Sok, Khuon Sokhamphu et Long Seam], Khing Hoc Dy ed., គ្រឹះស្ថានបោះពុម្ពផ្សាយអង្គរ, Phnom Penh, Éditions Angkor, 2013, p. 40 – 68.
  20. “Des varṇṇāśrama angkoriens aux peuples péariques du cambodgien post-angkorien. Une possible trace d’une institution angkorienne dans le lexique moderne et contemporain”, p. 101 – 144, complément des actes du colloque Quelle(s) science(s) pour le pays khmer ? Approches empiriques et théoriques, Péninsule no 65, 2012 (2) (paru en 2013).
  21. [in progress] ​“Le découpage du temps chez les Khmers,” Arch’Asie 2 – 1, 2008.
  22. [in progress] ​“Les stèles des estampeurs d’Aymonier”, prévu pour le dossier Corpus des inscriptions khmères, BEFEO 2012.
  23. [in progress] Traduction et étude d’un manuscrit khmer religieux, la Ratanamālā រតនមាលា, [with Jacqueline FILLIOZAT].
  24. [in progress] Traduction et étude d’un manuscrit khmer religieux, le Braḥ pād Vijjādhar ព្រះបាទវជ្ជាធរ [with Jacqueline FILLIOZAT & Ashley Thompson].

• Editor

  1. 2005 • Éditeur de ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រខ្មែរ [Pravattisāstr khmaer] (version khmère de : A History of Cambodia de David CHANDLER, Westview Press, 2000), 1re édition : 2005, 320 p., 2e édition révisée : 2005, 318 p., Phnom Penh, Center for Khmer Studies.
  2. 2006‑a • Éditeur associé (associate editor) de សំណង់អំពីឈើនៅប្រទេសកម្ពុជា ៖ កេរដំណែលដែលកំពុងសាបសូន្យ [Saṃṇaṅ’ aṃbī jhoe nau prades Kambujā : ker ṭaṃṇael ṭael kaṃbuṅ sāp sūny], Wooden Architecture of Cambodia, A Disappearing Heritage, Phnom Penh, Center for Khmer Studies (éditeur : François TAINTURIER), bilingue anglais – khmer, 199 p.
  3. [co-editor with Olivier de Bernon] ព្រះករុណាព្រះបាទសម្តេច ព្រះស៊ីសុវត្ថិ ព្រះចៅក្រុង កម្ពុជាធិបតី ព្រះរាជដំណើរទៅក្រុងបារាំងសែស ឆ្នាំមមីអដ្ឋស័ក៏ត្រូវនឹងឆ្នាំបារាំង ១៩០៦ [Voyage de Sa Majesté Sisowath, roi du Cambodge, en France, en l’année du Cheval, huitième de la décade, troisième année de Son règne, correspondant à l’année occidentale 1906], par l’Okñā Véang Thiounn, Phnom Penh, Éditions de la Bibliothèque nationale du Cambodge, 2006, 189 p.
  4. [editor with Penny Edwards] Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 8 – 9, special issue on Buddhism in Cambodia, 2006 – 2007, 293 p.
  5. [copy editor] កម្រងអត្ថបទជ្រើសរើស សិក្សាតំបន់អាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍ ៖ អាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍សម័យបច្ចុប្បន្ន [Selection of Articles, Studies on Southeast Asia, Contemporary Southeast Asia], Phnom Penh, Center for Khmer Studies, 2007, 164 p.
  6. [co-editor with Tan Sodany] កម្រងអត្ថបទជ្រើសរើស សិក្សាតំបន់អាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍ ភាគទី ២ ៖ វប្បធម៌និងអត្តសញ្ញាណ ៖ ប្រទេសកម្ពុជាក្នុងបរិបទអាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍ [Selection of Articles, Studies on Southeast Asia, Volume 2, Cultures and Identities: Cambodia in the Southeast Asian Context], Phnom Penh, Center for Khmer Studies, 2008, 122 p.
  7. [copy editor] ផ្តើមឈ្វេងយល់ពីប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រអាស៊ីអាគ្នេយ៍ [Southeast Asia: An Introductory History by Milton Osborne, Crows Nest (Australia), Allen & Unwin, 9th edition, 2004], Phnom Penh, Center for Khmer Studies, 2009 (1st ed.), 350 p.
  8. [editor] ប្រវត្តិសាស្ត្រខ្មែរ [Pravattisāstr khmaer] [A History of Cambodia by David Chandler, Westview Press, 2000], KH translation by ជិន ចន្នា CHIN Channa ប្រាក់ សុណ្ណារ៉ា PRAK Sonnara ម៉ម វណ្ណារី MAM Vannary សេង សោត SENG Sot, Phnom Penh, Center for Khmer Studies, 2009 (3d revised ed.), 344 p.
  9. [co-editor with ឆោម គន្ធា Chhom Kunthea] ភូមិស្វាយ ភូមិខ្មែរមួយនៅកម្ពុជា [May Ebihara, Svay, a Khmer Village in Cambodia], KH translation by ស៊ាង ឧស្សាហ៍ Sieng Ousa, Siem Reap, Center for Khmer Studies, 695 p.

• Reviews & leading articles 

  1. [review] ​“Compte-rendu de Nouvelles inscriptions du Cambodge II, traduites et éditées par Saveros Pou, Paris, EFEO, Collection de textes et documents sur l’Indochine, n° XX, 1996, 192 + XXIV planches”, Moussons 99, Dec.1999, p. 114 – 117.
  2. [editorial KH-FR-ENG] ​“វិចារណកថា — Editorial”, Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 1, March 2000, p. 3 – 5.
  3. [review] វិវេចនារបស់សៀវភៅ កម្រងឯកសារស្តីអំពីប្រពៃណីនិងទំនៀមទំលាប់ខ្មែរ រៀបរៀងដោយសាស្ត្រាចារ្យ មៀច ប៉ុណ្ណ និងព្រឹទ្ធាចារ្យ ហ៊ុន នាង [“Compte-rendu de l’ouvrage Collection de documents sur les mœurs et coutumes khmères, par le professeur Miech Ponn et le doyen Hun Neang, Ta Khmau (Cambodge), 1999”] », Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 1, March 2000, p. 30 – 31.
  4. [review] ​“Review of Dance in Cambodia, by Toni Samantha Phim and Ashley Thompson”, Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 1, March 2000, p. 31 – 32.
  5. [editorial KH-FR-ENG] ​“វិចារណកថា ‑Editorial”, Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 3, July 2001, p. 2 – 4.
  6. [editorial KH-FR-ENG] ​“វិចារណកថា — Editorial”, Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 4, Dec. 2001, p. 2 – 4.
  7. [editorial KH-FR-ENG] ​“វិចារណកថា — Editorial”, Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 5, Dec. 2002, p. 2 – 6.
  8. [editorial KH-FR-ENG] ​“វិចារណកថា — Editorial », Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 6, 2004, p. 4 – 9.
  9. [translation FR-KH & back cover for] ទំពាំងស្នងឫស្សី សៀវភៅរូបភាពខ្មែរសម័យថ្មី — (Re)géné́rations, La nouvelle bande dessinée khmère, Jean-Jacques Donard (Valéase project coordinator), Séra (editor, layout), Philippe Bataillard (graphic design), Im Lim and Nong Sotheara (photography), Phnom Penh, Bibliothèque nationale du Cambodge/Valéase, 2007, 100 p.
  10. [editorial KH-FR-ENG] ​“វិចារណកថា — Editorial”, Siksācakr សិក្សាចក្រ 10, 2008, p. 5 – 14. 

• Communications

  1. Le problème des dialectes dans les enquêtes de terrain : le cas du khmer, IRSEA (Institut de recherché sur le Sud-Est asiatique, UMR 6571), Aix-en-Provence, 9 June 1998.
  2. The Khmer Language: its Current State and Evolution, and Perspectives for the Future, Cambodia: Moving towards a Better Future conference, Refugee Studies Programme, Oxford, 9 June 1999.
  3. Reflections on the origin of the word ​“Khmer,” Department of South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of California at Berkeley, 15 Oct. 2002.
  4. 4 Oct. 2003 Interview par Marianne Khien sur l’état des lieux des connaissances du pays khmer et des études khmères, Khemara Vityou, Vallée FM 9.56, France | publiée in Chatomukh ចតុមុខ (mensuel d’information et d’opinion sur le Cambodge) n. 148 (Dec. 2003), 149 (Jan. 2004) and 150 (Feb. 2004).
  5. Continuité ou discontinuité : le problème de la transmission à travers des sources indirectes dans le cadre de la traduction, INALCO, Centre Dauphine, Paris, Cambodge, construction et déconstruction, les diagnostics apportés par l’analyse, les leçons apportées par l’expérience conference, 24 Nov. 2007.
  6. Problèmes et stratégies de traductions et de retraductions de l’anglais vers le khmer d’articles de recherches sur le Cambodge et les pays voisins, Centre d’Études Khmères (CEK), Phnom Penh, conférence donnée en khmer dans le cadre de la formation des traducteurs cambodgiens du CEK, 6 Jan. 2008.
  7. Histoire de la langue khmère et ses vicissitudes, séminaire de Master 1, dirigé par Jean-François Klein : Histoire contemporaine du Cambodge (AHP 08100), UE 2 « L’Asie du Sud-Est en mutation (AHP 08AA) », 11 May 2010.
  8. Les inscriptions des estampeurs d’Aymonier en 1881, séminaire du CIK (Corpus des inscriptions khmères), dirigé par Gerdi Gerschheimer, Maison de l’Asie, Paris, 17 June 2010.
  9. À propos de toponymes et de mots du vieux khmer toujours présents dans le vocabulaire moderne, Journée d’études sur le Cambodge dans le cadre du projet Manusastra, RUFA, Phnom Penh, 31 July 2013. 

Glossary Terms

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